Artificial Intelligence Essays (5026 words) - Cognitive Science

Artificial Intelligence Essays (5026 words) - Cognitive Science Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is based in the view that the only way to prove you know the mind's causal properties is to build it. In its purest form, AI research seeks to create an automaton possessing human intellectual capabilities and eventually, consciousness. There is no current theory of human consciousness which is widely accepted, yet AI pioneers like Hans Moravec enthusiastically postulate that in the next century, machines will either surpass human intelligence, or human beings will become machines themselves (through a process of scanning the brain into a computer). Those such as Moravec, who see the eventual result as the universe extending to a single thinking entity as the post-biological human race expands to the stars, base their views in the idea that the key to human consciousness is contained entirely in the physical entity of the brain. While Moravec (who is head of Robotics at Carnegie Mellon University) often sounds like a New Age psychedelic guru professing the nex t stage of evolution, most AI (that which will concern this paper) is expressed by Roger Schank, in that the question is not 'can machines think?' but rather, can people think well enough about how people think to be able to explain that process to machines? This paper will explore the relation of linguistics, specifically the views of Noam Chomsky, to the study of Artificial Intelligence. It will begin by showing the general implications of Chomsky's linguistic breakthrough as they relate to machine understanding of natural language. Secondly, we will see that the theory of syntax based on Chomsky's own minimalist program, which takes semantics as a form of syntax, has potential implications on the field of AI. Therefore, the goal is to show the interconnectedness of language with any attempt to model the mind, and in the process explain Chomsky's influence on the beginnings of the field, and lastly his potential influence on current or future research. Chomsky essentially founded modern linguistics in seeking out a systematic, testable theory of natural language. He hypothesized the existence of a language organ within the brain, wired with a deep structured universal grammar that is transmitted genetically and underlies the superficial structures of all human languages. Chomsky asserted that underlying meaning was carried in the universal grammar of deep structures and transformed by a series of operations that he termed transformational rules into the less abstract surface structures that was the spoken form of the various natural languages. He showed also that mental activities in general can and should be investigated independently of behavior and cognitive underpinnings. This idealization of the linguistic capability of a native speaker brought Chomsky to his nativist, internalist, and constructivist philosophical views of language and mind. This concept of generative grammar could be seen as a 'machine', in the abstract Turing sense, that can be used to generate all the grammatical sentences in a given language. Chomsky was searching for a formal method of describing the possible grammatical sentences of a language, as the Turing machine (more below) was used to specify what was possible in the language of mathematics. Chomsky's transformational generative grammar (TGG) possessed the most influence on AI in that it was a specification for a machine that went beyond the syntax of a language, to their semantics, or the ways that meanings are generated. An ambiguous sentence like I like her cooking or flying planes can be dangerous could have a single surface structure from multiple deep structures, just as semantically equivalent sentences involving a transformation from active to passive voice or the like, could have different surface structures emerging from the same deep structure. Computational linguists and AI researchers saw that these rules, once understood, could be applied, or mechanized, with a formal mathematical system. Here, natural languages were strings of symbols constructed to different conventions, which needed to be converted to a universal human 'machine code.' From a computational viewpoint, language is an abstract system for manipulating symbols; the universal grammar could be purified in the sense of mathematics, in other words, being independent of physical reality. Semantics in this view would just be an application of the abstract syntax onto the real world. Chomskyan linguistics, as we shall see further on, does

The Inevitability of Animal Testing in Medicine Essay Example

The Inevitability of Animal Testing in Medicine Essay Example The Inevitability of Animal Testing in Medicine Essay The Inevitability of Animal Testing in Medicine Essay In 1960s, about 10,000 babies who have short and malfunctioned legs and arms were born, surprising the public and scientists. People were worried and anxious to know the reason for the tragedy and the way to avoid the birth of defect babies. After many researches, scientists found out that the disabled babies were born to the mother who had taken a medicine called Thalidomide, a drug people used to deal with pregnant reaction, and was later proved to have teratogenicity to many animals by animal test. Then, people realized that animal test must be done before the drug used in treatment to avoid such accident. After several decades, animal test is still inevitable because it helps improve the medical science and is irreplaceable in medical science. Some people disagree with animal test because they think animal is crucial and not fair to animals. However, they may not fully understand the meaning of the animal test and the irreplaceability of animal test in medical science. First of all, animal test is the most effective experimental method in medical science. Animal test is still the most reliable method because animals share many commons with human. For instance, the rats share about 90% of human genes and humans and chimpanzees are 99% genetically identical. So, most of the physiological reactions happened in human body and animal body are the same. Thus, the results of test animal are reliable in most cases. Moreover, the importance of animal test has been proved by the achievements obtained by using animal test. As we know, all kinds of new drugs need animal test to prove that they are non-toxic before they are used in treatment. By using animal test, more than 20 kinds of new drugs are introduced to the market every year in USA. If we don’t use animal test, volunteers would be the only way to test drugs. However, the number of volunteers is limited, because it is very difficult to convince people to join drug test since people’s lives can be endangered. Thus, the test would be restricted because of the limited number of volunteers. What’s more, testing animals have done much contribution to the development of physiology and pathology. By using testing animals, people have understood more about human body and improved the new technology in medicine. For example, people have established the theories of circulation and digestion system, found the factors contribute to cancer and improved the technology of organ transplantation by using animal test. It is hard to imagine how medical science would be like without animal test. Some people think that animal test can be fully replaced by other methods. However, the fact is that animal test is still irreplaceable in medical science today because that we have not fully understand our body. Although we have saved many animals by using substitution such as cells test, animal test cannot be fully replaced by a lump of cells or organ, because an animal’s body is much more complicated than cells. For example, the function of a drug is usually influenced by the circulation and digestion systems and many factors we have not fully understand. When chemical reactions happen between drugs and enzyme in the body, the components of drugs can be changed into other substances, making it more difficult to learn the effects of the drugs by the experiments outside the body. If we dispose animal test, the introduction of new drugs would be slow down, and with less certainty. Another thought is that animal test is the only choice in some cases. For instance, the transplantation of organs such as liver and kidney should be first tested on animal, so that the rules and methods of transplantation can be established and the surgery can be safe to human. Without animal test, the transplantation of organs can be very risky and the cost might be the lives of patients. So, the animal test is still inevitable in many cases in the recent future. Another thing is that it is more important to reduce human suffering than to prevent animal suffering. It is obvious that every individual or species has the instinct to protect itself or its own species. So, if we have to do the choice from the benefits of human and that of animal, the answer is clear. When new drugs and technology are needed, it is more humane for us to do animal test to accelerate the invention of the new drug instead of discuss the necessity of animal test. Some people may disagree because they think every species in the planet should share the equal rights to live. However, if they have ever eaten meat from animal, used insecticide to kill bugs, and taken antibiotic to deal with bacterium, it is ridiculous for them to argue about equality. If we forbid animal test because of the consideration of animal rights, we may feel regret after the tragedy like the story of Thalidomide happens again. Some people encourage more volunteers to take part in the test, however, they may not consider the danger that the volunteers may confront. Which is sadder, the death of animal or the death of volunteers? So, it may be cruel to use animal to test new drugs, but it will be crueler to use drug on human without doing animal test. However, it’s wrongful to use animal test arbitrarily, so, we need establish rigid disciplines to control animal test. That is to say, we should use animal test only when we really need it. More specific, the number of animals used in the test, the purpose of the test, the necessity and rationality of the test must be concerned before the animal test is done. For example, we should avoid the repetition of animal test, which means we should get enough information before we do the experiments. If the same or similar test has been done by others and the result has been proved, the animal test should not be repeated again. Another thing is that we should use the advanced knowledge in statistics and experiment to minimize the number of animals required in a certain test. Before the experiment, we need spend some time to work out a proper plan, choose appropriate test method, so we can find the best way to get the experiment result with the smallest number of animals. Lastly, we should minimize the pain of the testing animal. It is not difficult to do so. For example, during cultivation of the testing animal, we can keep the animals clean and convenient by improving the environment they live; during the processing of test, we should use anesthesia to release the pain of animals; after the test, euthanasia should be applied to reduce the suffering of animals. I was a medicine student in university, as I have seen, most of the experiments in school have been done follow the rules of reducing the pain of animals. To conclude, animal test is inevitable when the life of people is concerned. Although some substitution methods of animal test have been found, animal test is still a necessary step before drugs are used on human. What we should do is to minimize the suffering of testing animal and find more effective substation method rather than discuss the necessity of animal test. Animal test is not only a topic about animal rights or justice, in fact, it is a much complex issue related to the development of medicine science and people’s life. So, it should be restricted but not banned without enough consideration and perfect substitutions.

OReilly v Mackman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

OReilly v Mackman - Essay Example This case is primarily one which was concerned with the procedural niceties of judicial review, laying out the principle that public law claims were to be dealt with exclusively by judicial review and private law claims were to be dealt with by Writ. Therefore this decision set a precedent in that it resulted in a locking of the remedies of injunction and the declaration that had entered the realm of the public domain by Common law, permanently into that domain. This does not appear to have been the original intent behind Lord Diplock’s judgment, for he has clearly stated that the â€Å"Order 53 does not expressly provide that procedure by way of application for judicial review shall be the exclusive procedure available† for obtaining remedy by injunction or declaration for infringement of rights under public law2. However, the fact that in this case, the invocation of a Writ was deemed to be an abuse of the process of the Court resulted in the subsequent position in law that only through the invoking of public law procedure could the remedies of declaration and injunction be obtained under judicial review. The orthodox approach to judicial review is based upon the absolute and indivisible sovereignty of the British Parliament3. The O’Reilly case also established that if the nature of the claim that is being made is that the public body acted ultra vires or outside the scope of its statutory powers, then this is a matter for judicial review. The ultra vires doctrine is based on the principle that all legal duties are created by Parliament4, therefore, the judicial function extends to the scope of controlling of the exercise of such statutory powers.  

The Analysis of the Song Run Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Analysis of the Song Run - Essay Example The song is written in a way to highlight a strong or unique vocalist, as it becomes the primary responsibility of the vocalist to imbue the song with life. Similar styles have been witnessed with such vocalists as Nico from the Velvet Underground, or the underground alternative rock artist Cat Power. The music begins with the song’s lyrics start. A snare drum is heard playing slow and hushed-like. An electric guitar plays a minimalist melody. Two to three chords are played, currently, there is no bass being used. After a few minutes, the guitar and drum combo ends. The bass guitar and the drums continue as the vocals finally started. The first three lines state, â€Å"I go away to a place/ Way far out in space/ That is away from the things I know†. This line refers to the imaginative process that I go under when I play music or think in lyrical terms. Additionally, the reference to space refers to the aesthetic qualities of the universe as the great unknown of human experience. The lyrics here are relayed in a subdued tone in accordance with the minimalist melody that has already been established by the bass guitar and drums. Overrated/ But can’t think of/ What to do about it † Here the bass guitar and snare drums continue in a minimalist style along with the vocals. The lyrics are composed in a purposely meandering way. In this way, they do not follow the strict pattern of grammatically correct discourse, but instead, adopt a logic that is acceptable within the confines of music. The lyrics additionally reflect a general existential malaise that is recurrent throughout the track. One imagines the vocalist spending the day alone and lazily reaching over and grabbing a guitar. The music in terms of the vocals and the melody is then improvisational in an aesthetic sense. The bass guitar melody as does not need to be incredibly consistent. Instead, this could even be reinvented for each song.

The sublime Kant & Burke Essay Example for Free

The sublime Kant Burke Essay In Neil Hertz’s essay, The Notion of Blockage in the Literature of the Sublime, Neil uses the work of William Wordsworth to makes a connection to the very distinguished and particular notion of the mathematical sublime by Immanuel Kant. The mathematical sublime is the perception that reason has this superiority over imagination because reason and logic is boundless whereas imagination is limited to what we have personally experienced through our senses. When in the presence of something that embodies the overwhelming magnitude of an idea that we cannot comprehend at first glance (the sublime), Kant believes that reason has the upper hand over the senses. By means of reasoning, we as individuals can determine that there is some claim to final totality. When this reasoning comes face to face with an agent of the sublime, our logic is able to understand the failure of our ability to grasp the enormity of something so thought shattering that it eventually leads to the realization that our reason is more reliable than our senses. The sensory faculty bases its understanding on empirical evidence and in this case would have no influence over our train of thought because we have never experienced anything quite like the sublime. Kant labels this as the blockage and associates it with a negative feeling, this feeling of displeasure stems from the fact that in order to grasp the concept of the sublime the individual must realize that their previous cognitive limits were not developed enough. Hertz has a different idea about the result of experiencing the mathematical sublime, he believes that it brings us pleasure by means of displeasure but the pleasure and power of overcoming our imagination’s shortcomings bring us a greater satisfaction than we could have experienced without this knowledge. Hertz then applies several excerpts from book 7 of Wordsworth’s The 1805 Prelude. Wordsworth’s literary works reinforce Hertz’s position upon the sublime and his concept of blockage. Before he begins analyzing the literary works, Hertz lays down the foundation of the sublime and states, with the use of Weiskels argument that â€Å"The cause of the sublime is the aggrandizement of reason at the expense of imaginative apprehension of reality and at the expense of reality. †(Hertz, 51) After attaining this level of consciousness is it easier to assess the effect of the sublime and how it creates a new insight by means of comprehending that the sublime consists of structure and disagreement. Kant voices a very similar idea as Weiskel just a couple sentences later, â€Å"the very moment in which the mind turns within and performs its identification with reason. †(Hertz, 51) He uses this notion of blockage in relation to Wordsworth’s poems, and how we have difficulty in grasping the concept before we recognize and understand the sublime and how it unites the mind when it is filled with such a grand sensation. Unto myself, The face of every one That passes by me is a mystery! Thus have I looked, nor ceased to look, oppressed By thoughts of what and whither, when and how. All laws of acting, thinking, speaking man Went from me, neither knowing me nor known. (Hertz, 58) Wordsworth is making reference to the publication and how everyone is the same but different at the same time, whilst making allusions to the sensory approach and how he does not understand the incident to its furthest degree. He is stuck on the mathematically sublime until he advances in his text analysis and stumbles upon the blind beggar. Or emblem of the utmost that we know Both of ourselves and of the universe, And on the shape of this unmoving man, His fixed face and sightless eyes, I looked, As if admonished from another world.

Misguided Feminist Reaction to A Streetcar Named Desire Essay examples

Misguided Feminist Reaction to A Streetcar Named Desire   Ã‚  Ã‚   The dramatic climax of A Streetcar Named Desire, clearly illustrates the mastery of author Tennessee Williams. The brilliantly constructed text, with its tragic story and enticing characters, propels the reader to a point in which he becomes emotionally involved in the dynamics of Williams’ world. Unfortunately, many feminists are negatively affected by Williams’ captivating writing style. In turn, feminists have developed an array of very strong opinions regarding the climax, often responding with a very personal and emotive discussion of the issues. Concentrating on the dynamics of each character and his stance during the climax, feminists present an intelligent discussion on the inevitability of the rape and its effect on the characters. Unfortunately, many feminists have a tendency to become focused on the morals of rape, rather than exploring the symbolic nature of rape. Many feminists have also let their emotions and personal values sway their arguments, even to the point where they personally attack Tennessee Williams.   However, a correct reading of the climax should focus on the symbolism of the event and the positioning of characters. From this stance, it becomes much clearer why this disturbing climax was essential, especially when considering the shocking conclusion to the play. The feminist’s lack of serious discussion of the necessity of the rape scene is the weak link in their argument. While feminists concede that the character of Blanche is a woman with more than a few â€Å"inconsistencies†, their description of Stanley as a "monster" is not justified. Feminists neglect to consider Stanley’s vulnerability as a factor in the rape; but they justify... ... and the rape are archetypes of society, representing the battle between good will and survival, good and evil, class and inhumanity, behind which the driving force is utter desire!    Works Cited and Consulted Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will. New York: Bantam Books, 1975. Dworkin, Andrea. Intercourse. New York: The Free Press, 1087 Lant, Kathleen Margaret. "A Streetcar Named Misogyny." pp. 225-238 in REDMOND. Redmond, James (Editor). Violence in Drama. Cambridge University Press; 1991.   Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1985. Williams, Edwina Dakin. Remember Me to Tom. St. Louis: Sunrise Publishing Company, 1963. Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc: 1975. Williams, Tennessee. A Streetcar Named Desire. New York: Signet. Original copyright 1947.

Law unit

Consultation- this is your first stage where you have to get different opinions from other people about what they think about the law that you want to introduce. You can do this by creating a survey, questionnaire, asking people face to face etc. If you get you get positive or negative feedback then you can go through to the next stage which is the green paper.Green paper- this is the second stage, where you produce your draft and its being hacked to see if it's suitable enough to be presented to the Members of Parliament White paper- when your bill becomes a white paper it means that it Is suitable to be presented to the public and the members of parliament. You'll then go to the next stage which is the first reading. First reading- this is when all the members of the parliament and the public get together in a court and you present your bill to all of them. Second reading- this can be days after your first reading.In the second reading you'll o In to more detail explaining why you want your bill to be officially made a law. You'll list both the disadvantages and the advantages of the bill. Committee- after your second reading the committee will get together and discuss your bill. They will be located in a room where they have privacy and are able to discuss without any Interference. 1 OFF including the members of parliament and the public and you. The committee will give back feedback to what they think about your bill. Third reading- throughout the presentation your bill might be changed a few times.This is where you present your bill for last and final time. The last vote is taken here, that decide whether your bill is officially a law. Other house (depending where it started of – this is where your bill gets send to the other house depending where it started off. Royal assent- When both houses agree on the bill you've presented and its then sends off to the queen so that can give a royal assent to make your bill and official law. Public and private bills: Private bills- are laws that are passed and only affect a few individuals or reparations.They don't affect the whole community that's why they are known as Private Bills. Private members Bill- These can be sponsored by individual MSP. When presenting a Private Bill all members of the Parliament get together. Normally there will be about 20 members of parliament. They all take turns presenting a Bill to the Parliament. There is a time limit for present a Private Bill. The debate takes place on Fridays so that other members of the Parliament get the chance to present the selected Bill.Public bills- this is laws that are passed and affects the whole country or partly of it. Majority of the Government bills. Fall under: Reform Act 2005, the Legal Service Reform Act 2007 and the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. Doctrine of Parliamentary Supremacy- the Parliament is only allowed to pass laws that can be changed in the future by Parliaments. No other body can overrule the Parliament. The Parliament is known as the I-J constitution. It can make or end a law. It's seen as the highest supreme legal authority.

Cipero River

Methodology Where was data collected? Data was collected at Cipero River, South Trinidad The Cipreo River was chosen as the area of study for pollution. The study of pollution was ideal for the area, as it is a major area which is situated near the San Fernando region, these very rivers banks where also overflown of the year 2010. When was data collected? The field study was conducted on June 12th 2012, between the hours of 8. am. and 10. am. How was data collected? Data was obtained by the use of various instruments, such as a * Camera * Pen Stationary paper * Measuring tape * Stopwatch * String * Cups * PH meter What was done to obtain this data? * 7 points of the Cipero river were examined, at each point of the river a cup was lowered into the water, by the use of the string, to obtain water from the river, the PH meter was then used to determine whether that part of the water was polluted, by showing results from the test either being acidic or alkaline. * Data was also obtained, by determining the velocity of the water at each point of the river, which was visited. 1.Stationary paper was used to make a paper boat 2. Measuring tape was then used to measure a certain distance, this determined the departure and arrival of the boat at the given area. 3. The boat was then released and the stopwatch immediately started 4. When the paper boat passed the required distance the stopwatch was then stopped, results where then recorded. Aim * To identify the causes and consequences of pollution, at various points along Cipero River South, Trinidad. Analysis and Discussion Do you know the meaning of the word pollution?Longman Geography for CSEC gives the definition as, â€Å"†¦the unclean state of the environment resulting in physical, chemical and biological changes that can seriously affect ecological systems. † Pollution results from the improper disposal of waste, whether solid, liquid or gas, with this being said from the results which were obtained at Ciprero River it is my belief that the river is polluted. Seven points of the river were examined at the river and at each point which was visited there was pollution of various forms present.At the beginning of the river it was slightly polluted there was little improper disposal of unwanted materials such as garbage and iron present, this may have been due to individuals who pass nearby the river occasionally, and also due to motor vehicles who are constantly passing on the roads on a daily day to day basis. Despite this it was noticed that as I examined more and more points of the river, the more polluted it seemed. At point four of the river there was pollution present in the water due to improper drainage caused by industries, industrial waste was seen circulating in the water.At various parts of the water it was brown and murky black in color, it also had an offensive smell. There are three types of major pollution that can be observed at the Cipero River. Land pollution is on e of them, the Cipero River is located in an area which is close to the town San Fernando, many people on a daily bases pass through this area to go to attend their jobs, and also to reach to the town. It can be said that people often throw and dispose of their garbage improperly and due to the constant presence of individuals passing through this region, more and more garbage is accumulating near and inside the river.Water pollution is the second major form of pollution, in the form of sewage due to improper drainage. Water enters the river due to the housing developments poor drainage system and also from industries that release harmful chemicals and waste into the water, this affects the color and quality of the water. Water pollution, also poses a threat to the animal species that are present in the water, it was observed that at point one of the river fishes and alligators were seen living in this river as their habitat, when the water becomes polluted and they can’t sur vive, what will be the outcome?!Offensive odour also presents itself as pollution, improper drainage from people’s houses and industries enters the water causing it to have an unpleasant odour. The Cipero River is also located on a road which is constantly busy, sometimes at night people may also not have a choice and urinate near the river, this along with the water pollution and land pollution increases the smell of the river making it smell more fowl.Conclusion Evidently there is a problem of pollution which is present at the Cipero River, due to types of pollution such as, sewage, offensive odour, and waste water. This is mainly due to poor waste and sewage practices and poor regulation of drainage, this problem can be easily stopped if individuals are willing to make a difference. In conclusion, the matter of pollution is one that is not taken seriously in Trinidad and Tobago, all around us every day we see pollution existing, yet still nobody seems to care.Pollution is something that should be addressed more regularly because although it may seem like it’s not important, it is. Table Of Contents The Aim of the study Location of field study Methodology Presentation of data Analysis and Discussion Conclusion Bibliography Presentation of data Bibliography * The site of Cipero River South Trinidad * Paul Guiness et al. Geography for CSEC. Nelson Thornes, 2008 Name: Karishma Ramtahal School: Parvati Girls Hindu College Class: 5M1 Topic: Pollution at Cipero River South Trinidad

Integrated Pest Management essays

Integrated Pest Management essays As stated in Controlling Turfgrass Pests, Integrated pest management (IPM) is both a concept and a philosophy. It is a broad, multidisciplinary, systematic approach to controlling all pests. All types of control methods (biological, cultural, regulatory, physical, and chemical) are utilized. Use of IPM strategies should result in effective and economical suppression of pests with a minimum effect on nontarget organisms and the environment. IPM is based on understanding the biology and ecology of the turfgrass plant or community to be protected and the pests to be controlled (Shurtleff et al. 361). Now you have a definition for integrated pest management. How would you go about setting up this program? The truth is, you wouldnt be able to. If you didnt already know what IPM is, you would not have the knowledge in this field to succeed. Most people believe that all you do is put some grass down, add fertilizer, water, spray a little pesticide, and then mow once every other week. This is not the case. While all of these have their own role when used properly, the primary objective is to reduce pesticide use, states Robert Emmons in the second edition of Turfgrass Science and Management (339). Education is the key to a successful IPM program. Not only education about the program, but every facet of turfgrass management. For example, poor fertilization and water practices can lead to perfect conditions for a host of turfgrass pests. ...

Festivals in Barbados essays

Festivals in Barbados essays The Caribbean Island of Barbados is quickly becoming a hub for many tourists. In previous years sugar cane was our main source of income; however, it has been quickly overtaken by Tourism. Due to this rise in Tourism, the government had to put several activities in place to attract and keep their most welcomed guests well entertained also with the view of ensuring their return to our shore. Hence, the annual tourism calendar for the island, the government has made provision for seven major festivals billed by many persons as, The Magnificent Seven. These festivals are rich in history and they provide lots of entertainment for our numerous visitors and natives alike. The festivals are namely, the Crop Over festival, Holetown festival, Oistins fish festival, Gospelfest, National Independence festival of Creative Arts, the Congaline Carnival and the Barbados Jazz Festival. The Crop Over festival, the oldest of the festivals is the highlight of the summer. It is an all-island jubilation running from mid-July to early August (Pariser 77) Crop Over originated in the days of the plantation society. During this festival, there is the collision of British and African cultures. The Original event was know as the English Harvest Home Festivities or Harvest Time, signaling the end of the sugar cane harvest. The festival was a combination of a traditional harvest festival and West-African style yam celebrations (78). During this time, the slaves and their masters both had reasons to celebrate the end of the crop. For the planter, this signaled that the last of the crop for the year was ready for shipping to the merchant in England, who in return rewarded the planter with the luxuries of life. For the slave it was the end of the longest and most exhausting part of the year. Thus, the completion of the harvest season brought singing, dancing and general merriment. After the emancipation of the slaves, the fes...

Aggregate Demand or Aggregate Supply Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Aggregate Demand or Aggregate Supply - Essay Example The story line of the article is directly based on aggregate demand. Aggregate demand is made up of a number of variables, namely, consumption, investment, government spending, and net imports. A decline in the value of the dollar causes a rise in consumer prices, and higher prices depict the occurrence of inflation (Kadlec, 2012). As a result, consumption becomes relatively expensive, and it is, therefore, bound to decline. In this scenario, government spending increases to fill the gap. Decline in the value of the dollar made imports expensive and exports favorable. Net imports increased due to low imports and high exports activities. This impacts the aggregate demand positively. Therefore, Kadlec’s story had a positive impact on aggregate demand. The variables that make up aggregate demand directly influence both domestic and international markets. Countries engage in trade and exchange activities using some of the major world currencies. The U.S dollar is a primary currency in international exchange activities. Fluctuations in its value influence world markets differently, especially in relation to changes in consumer

Computer management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Computer management accounting - Essay Example The activities that are managed by organisations are becoming more complex and sophisticated, and so too is the way that these activities are configured for productive purposes. This means that the various component Management accounting is concerned with the provision of information to management, to assist with planning, decision-making and control within the business. Because planning and decision-making are inevitably directed to the future, management accounting often involves making future projections, usually called budgets. Important applications of this are capital budgeting, which deals with the appraisal of investments, and cash budgeting, which deals with the projection of future cash inflows and outflows, and the consequent financial requirements of the entity. Management accounting is also concerned with controlling and appraising the outcome of past plans, for example by analysing costs, and with assessing the economic performance of particular divisions or activities of the entity. Because the demand for management accounting information varies according to the activities, size and management structure of the entity, and because the supply of such information is not subject to statutory regulation or audit, there is a much greater variety both of techniques and of practice in management accounting than in financial accounting. ... Management has, of course, direct control over the information system of the business, so that formal regulation of the management accounting system is less important. II. Evolutionary Theories (Institutional Economics) Hamilton (2001)'s first major work, Evolutionary Economics, was primarily an exploration of the contrast between the institutionalist view of the economy as evolutionary and the classical static and mechanistic rendition. In his work this exploration primarily was conducted through examination of major areas, the institutional theories of consumption (demand), production, and distribution. (Hamilton 2001 p.745). Burns & Scapens, (2000) describe the background of institutional theory as "in recent years there has been increasing interest in institutional theory across the social sciences". They argue that three such theories have been used in the accounting literature see Miller, 1994 namely: new institutional or transaction cost economics see Walker, 1998 ; old institutional economics see Scapens, 1994 ; and new institutional sociology see Carruthers, 1995 Although these theories have different origins and intellectual roots, they share a concern for institutions and institutional change. All three offer insights which are helpful for conceptualizing management accounting change. They insist that OIE provides a focus on organizational routines and their institutionalization and, as stated above, in studying management accounting change we are studying changes in organizational routines. It also provides a way of dealing with some of the difficulties of using Giddens' 1984 structuration theor y in accounting research, and especially in research dealing with management accounting change. (Burns & Scapens, 2000 p.2) Burns &